DE SCRIPTURIS ET SCRIPTORIBUS SACRIS

• CHAP. I.-- Which writings ought to be called, in a special sense, by the name of divinity.
• CHAP. II.-- That divine Scripture is distinguished from others in its matter and in its manner of treatment.
• CHAP. III.-- On the threefold understanding of Holy Scripture.
• CHAP. IV.-- That not all things in the divine utterance, but only certain ones, are to be forced to this threefold interpretation.
• CHAP. V.-- That the literal and historical interpretation is necessary.
• CHAP. VI.-- On the order, number, and authority of the books of Holy Scripture.
• CHAP. VII.-- On the writers of the sacred books.
• CHAP. VIII.-- On the restoration of the library of the Old Testament.
• CHAP. IX.-- On the various translations of Holy Scripture.
• CHAP. X.-- On the writers of the New Testament.
• CHAP. XI.-- On the apocryphal writings.
• CHAP. XII.-- On the interpretation of the word Library, and on the various names of books.
• CHAP. XIII.-- On the fruit of divine reading.
• CHAP. XIV.-- What fruit Holy Scripture takes from the others; and what it furnishes to others; and on the six circumstances by which the things signified are mystically discerned; and first on the three which are thing, person, numbers.
• CHAP. XV.-- On the numbers of Holy Scripture, which signify in nine ways.
• CHAP. XVI.-- On three other circumstances, namely the places, the times, and the deeds of Holy Scripture.
• CHAP. XVII.-- On the matter of Holy Scripture.
• CHAP. XVIII.-- On the difficulties of Holy Scripture, especially in the histories.

• 9A

The reader of the divine Scriptures must first be instructed, so that he may know which writings are worthy to be honored, in a special sense, with the name of divinity. For certain men, speaking through the spirit of this world, have written many things. We read the songs of the poets, in which, together with delight, there is also some usefulness; as a certain one says: Poets wish either to profit or to delight. HORATIUS, Art. poet., 333.

Logic, mathematics, and physics teach a certain truth, but they do not reach that truth in which the salvation of the soul consists, without which whatever is, is in vain. The philosophers of the gentiles also wrote on ethics, 10Ain which they painted, as it were, certain limbs of the virtues lopped off from the body of goodness; but the limbs of the virtues cannot be alive without the body of the charity of God. All the virtues make one body, and the head of that body is charity. Nor can the limbs of the body live unless they are given sensation from the head. Those writings, therefore, in which truth is not perceived without the contagion of error, and by which the soul is not restored to the true knowledge or love of God, are by no means worthy to be reckoned by the name of divinity. But that Scripture alone is rightly called divine which has been breathed by the Spirit of God and, administered through those who spoke by the Spirit of God, makes man divine, reforming him to the likeness of God by instructing him unto the knowledge, and by exhorting him unto the love, 11Aof him. In it, whatever is taught is truth; whatever is commanded, goodness; whatever is promised, happiness. For God is truth without deceit, goodness without malice, happiness without misery. If, then, you wish to distinguish divine Scripture by right consideration from the others, which do not deserve this name, consider diligently the very matter about which and in which its treatment is engaged, since acquaintance with things makes for the opening up of words. For you will the more easily understand what is said; if it has been well known whence it is said.

There are two works of God, by which all things that have been made are brought to completion. The first is the work of founding, 11Bby which those things were made which were not; the second is the work of restoration, by which those things were repaired which had perished. The work of founding is the creation of the world with all its clementis. The work of restoration is the incarnation of the Word with all its sacraments, whether those which went before the incarnation from the beginning of the age, or those which follow after up to the end of the world. The first works, therefore, were made for service, that they might be subject to man while he stood by righteousness. But the second were made for salvation, that they might raise up man as he lay by fault: therefore these are the greater. For this reason the former, as being a slight and scanty token of the divine power, were completed in a short time, that is, in six days only. But the latter, as excelling in comparison with the former and having a greater effect of power, 11Ccannot be brought to completion save in six ages. In these, then, consider the matter of the divine Scriptures, so that both in that of which they treat and in that manner in which they treat it — that is, in matter and in manner — you may be able to distinguish them from other writings. For the matter of all other writings lies in the works of founding; the matter of the divine Scriptures consists in the works of restoration. This, then, is the first distinction, in respect of that of which they treat. Again, if other writings teach any truth, it is not without the contagion of error; if they seem to commend any goodness, either it is mixed with malice, so that it is not pure, or it is without the knowledge and love of God, so that it is not perfect. Therefore, just as that in them which is thought to be called divine casts the reader's mind headlong down to earthly things 11Dthrough the falsehood joined to it, so also that which in Holy Scripture seems to be earthly lifts him up, through the true acknowledgment of the Creator which is commended in all these things, to think upon and to love things divine and heavenly.

The sacred utterance is expounded according to a threefold understanding. The first exposition is the historical, in which is considered the first signification of the words with respect to the things themselves of which the account treats. For the sacred utterance has 12Aa certain property differing from other writings, in that in it first, through the words which are recited, certain things are treated of, which things again are set forth in place of words for the signification of other things. History is named from the Greek verb ἰςορέω, historeo, which is "I see" and "I narrate." This is because among the ancients no one was permitted to write deeds done except such as he had himself seen, lest falsehood be mingled with truth by the fault of a writer saying more, or less, or otherwise. According to this, history is spoken of properly and strictly; but it is wont to be taken more broadly, so that that sense is called history which is had in the first place from the signification of the words with respect to things. The second exposition is the allegorical. Now allegory is when, through that which is set forth as signified by the letter, some other thing done, whether in the past 12Bor in the present or in the future, is signified. Allegory is so called as it were "other-speech," because one thing is said and another signified; and it is subdivided into simple allegory and anagogy. And simple allegory is when, through a visible deed, another invisible deed is signified. Anagogy, that is, a leading upward, is when through the visible an invisible deed is declared. Let one example of this threefold understanding be set down. There was a man in the land of Hus, by name Job, who, formerly rich, came to such misery that, sitting on the dunghill, he even scraped the discharge of his body with a potsherd. The sense of the history is plain. Let us come to the allegory, that we may consider how, through the things signified by the words, other things are signified, and through one deed another deed. Job, therefore, whose name is interpreted grieving, signifies Christ, 12Cwho, being before in the riches of the Father's glory coequal with him, condescended to our misery and sat humbled on the dunghill of this world, sharing in all our defects except sin. Let us also inquire what thing to be done — that is, what is worthy to be done — is signified by this deed. Job can signify any righteous man, or the penitent soul, which composes in its memory a dunghill out of all the sins it has committed, and, not for an hour but perseveringly, sitting over this and meditating, does not cease to weep. And these deeds according to the letter, which represent spiritual things of this kind, are called sacraments.

• 12D

Assuredly not all things that are found in the divine utterance are to be twisted to this threefold interpretation, so that individual passages should be believed to contain history, allegory, and tropology all together. And even if in many places this can be fittingly assigned; yet to observe it everywhere is either difficult or impossible. For just as in the lyre and in musical instruments of this kind not indeed all the things that are touched sound out anything tuneful, 13Abut only the strings — the rest, however, in the whole body of the lyre were made for this, that there might be a place where those things should be fastened and something to which they should be stretched which the craftsman is about to tune for the sweetness of the song — so in the divine utterances certain things are set down which are meant to be understood only spiritually; certain others serve the seriousness of morals; certain others again are said according to the simple sense of the history; and some indeed there are which can be fittingly expounded according to history and allegory and tropology.

Since, then, the mystical understanding is gathered only from those things which the letter sets forth in the first place; I wonder with what face certain men boast themselves teachers of allegories, 13Bwho are still ignorant of that very first signification of the letter. "We," they say, "read the Scripture, but we do not read the letter. We do not care about the letter; but we teach allegory." How, then, do you read the Scripture and not read the letter? For if the letter is taken away, what is Scripture? "We," they say, "do read the letter, but not according to the letter. For we read allegory, and we expound the letter not according to the letter, but according to allegory." What, then, is it to expound the letter, except to show that which the letter signifies? "But the letter," they say, "signifies one thing according to history, another according to allegory. For a lion according to history signifies a beast, according to allegory it signifies Christ: therefore that word, lion, signifies Christ." I therefore ask 13Cyou who approve this, why does a lion signify Christ? You answer perhaps, in the way in which answer is usually made in matters of this kind, on the ground of the convenentia of the likeness set forth for the signification: because a lion sleeps with open eyes, or something else of the sort: therefore a lion signifies Christ, because he sleeps with open eyes. For so did you say, that lion, that word, signifies Christ, because he sleeps with open eyes. Either, then, take away the statement which you set forth, or change the reason which you subjoined. For either the statement is false by which you said that that word, lion, signifies Christ, or the reason which you subjoined is unfitting, that a lion signifies Christ for this cause, that he sleeps with open eyes. For it is not the word that sleeps with open eyes, but the animal itself 13Dwhich the word signifies. Understand, therefore, that when he says that a lion signifies Christ, it is not the name of the animal, but the animal itself, that is signified. For this is what, as is said, sleeps with open eyes, according to which by some likeness it figures him who in the sleep of the death he took upon himself slept in his humanity, but kept his eyes open, watching in his divinity. Do not, therefore, glory in the understanding of the Scriptures so long as you are ignorant of the letter. But to be ignorant of the letter is to be ignorant of what the letter signifies, and of what is signified by the letter. For that which is signified by the first signifies a third. Since, then, those things which the letter signifies are signs of the spiritual understanding, 14Ahow can those things be signs to you which have not yet been signified to you? Do not, then, make a leap, lest you fall headlong. He walks most rightly who walks in order. First, therefore, be zealous by reading to acquire an acquaintance with those things which the sacred utterance sets before you, with a view to their mystical signification, so that, when these are known in their outward appearance, you may afterwards by meditation gather what you may bring forward by way of likeness either for the building up of faith or for the instruction of good morals. "But not all things," they say, "can be read according to the letter, or fittingly understood. For since the prophet says that he saw a fiery river going forth from beneath the throne of God, and testifies to certain winged and many-eyed living creatures flying about round about and crying out (Dan. VII; Ezech. I), and many 14Blike things in this manner, there is no doubt that of those things which the sacred utterance narrates some are fittingly taken according to the letter, while others are understood as said only by figure." Thus, then, do they speak, as though we supposed that all things which are said through the letter are to be taken altogether so, and that nothing else is to be understood from those things which are said; for that which a thing is is not said through the letter, but is signified through that which the letter says. For even in that which is taken as said figuratively, it is not denied that the letter has its own signification, because, when we assert that what is said is not to be understood as it is said, we affirm that that very thing has in some manner been said. Something, therefore, is said and signified by the letter even then, when that which is said is nonita understood as it is said, but 14Csomething else which is signified by what is thereby said. Thus, therefore, something is altogether said and signified by the letter, and that first thing which is signified by the letter must be understood, so that what is signified through it may afterwards be understood. In this manner we wish the reader to be admonished, lest perchance he despise these first rudiments of the teaching. Nor let him think that acquaintance with those things is to be despised which Holy Scripture sets before us through the first signification of the letter, since these are the very things which the Holy Spirit has painted for carnal senses — senses able to grasp invisible things only through visible ones — as it were certain images of mystical meanings, and, through the likenesses set forth, has figured a clear demonstration of those things which are to be understood spiritually. 14DBut if, as these men say, one had to leap at once from the letter to that which is to be understood spiritually, then in vain would the figures and likenesses of things, by which the mind might be trained for spiritual things, have been interposed in the sacred utterance by the Holy Spirit. For, the Apostle being witness, that which is carnal is first, then that which is spiritual (I Cor. XV). And the very wisdom of God, unless it had first been known bodily, could never have enlightened the vision of the bleary mind to contemplate it spiritually. Do not, therefore, despise the lowliness in the word of God, because through lowliness, you are enlightened unto divinity. All this 15Awhich the word of God has on the outside seems to you as mud, and therefore perhaps you tread it under foot, because it is mud, and you despise what the letter narrates as done bodily and visibly. But hear: by that mud which is trodden under your feet the eye of the blind man is enlightened to see (Joan. IX) Read, therefore, the Scripture, and learn first diligently the things which it narrates bodily. For if you have zealously impressed upon your mind the form of these things according to the order of the narrative set forth, then afterwards, by meditating, you will drive away, as from a certain honeycomb, the sweetness of spiritual understanding.

All divine Scripture is contained in two Testaments, namely the Old and the New. Each Testament is divided into three orders: the Old 15BTestament contains the law, the prophets, the hagiographa. The New, the Gospel, the apostles, the fathers. The first order of the Old Testament, that is, the law, which the Hebrews name thorath, has the Pentateuch, that is, the five books of Moses. In this order the first is Beresith, which is Genesis. The second Hellesmoth, which is Exodus. The third Vagethra, which is Leviticus. The fourth Vagedaber, which is Numbers. The fifth Elleaddaberim, which is Deuteronomy. The second order is that of the prophets; this contains eight volumes. The first is Bennum, that is, the son of Nun, who is also called both Josue and Jesus, and Jesus Nave. The second is Sothim, which is the book of Judges. The third is Samuel, which is the first and second of Kings. The fourth Malachim, which is the third and fourth of Kings. The fifth 15Cis Isaiah. The sixth Jeremiah, The seventh Ezekiel. The eighth Thereasra which is that of the twelve prophets. Then the third order has nine books. The first is Job. The second David. The third Masloth, which in Greek sounds Parabolae, in Latin Proverbia, namely of Solomon. The fourth Coeleth, which is Ecclesiastes. The fifth Sirasirim, that is, the Song of Songs. The sixth Daniel. The seventh Dabreiamin, which is Paralipomenon. The eighth Esdras. The ninth Esther. All, then, come to twenty-two in number. There are besides certain other books, such as the Wisdom of Solomon, the book of Jesus son of Sirach, and the book of Judith, and Tobias, and the books of the Maccabees, which are indeed read, but are not written in the canon. To these twenty-two books of the Old Testament 15Deight books of the New Testament are joined. In the first order of the New Testament there are four Gospels: of Matthew, of Mark, of Luke, and of John. In the second there are likewise four: namely the Acts of the apostles, the Epistles of Paul, fourteen in number, woven together under one volume. The Canonical Epistles, the Apocalypse. In the third order the first place is held by the decretals, which we call canonical, that is, regular. Then the writings of the holy Fathers, that is, of Jerome, Augustine, Ambrose, Gregory, Isidore, Origen, Bede, and 16Aof other doctors, which are beyond number. These writings of the Fathers, however, are not reckoned in the text of the divine Scriptures, just as in the Old Testament, as we have said, there are certain books which are not written in the canon, and yet are read, such as the Wisdom of Solomon and the rest. The text, therefore, of the divine Scriptures, as it were the whole body, is contained principally in thirty books. Of these, twenty-two are comprised in the Old, and eight in the New Testament (as has been shown above). But the other writings are as it were adjuncts, flowing from these that precede. Now in these orders, especially of both Testaments, a correspondence appears: because just as after the law the prophets, and after the prophets the hagiographers, so after the Gospel the apostles, and after the apostles the doctors 16Bfollowed in order. And it was brought about by a certain wondrous plan of the divine dispensation that, although in each of the Scriptures the full and perfect truth stands complete, yet none of them is superfluous.

Moses wrote the five books of the law. Of the book of Josue, Josue himself, by whose name it is inscribed, is believed to have been the author. They believe that the book of Judges was published by Samuel. The first part of the book of Samuel Samuel himself wrote; but what follows, to the very end, David. Malachim Jeremiah first gathered into one volume; for before that it was scattered through the histories of the several kings. Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel each made their own books, which are inscribed with their names. 16CThe book of the twelve prophets also is headed with the names of its authors, whose names are. Hosea, Joel, Amos, Abdias, Jonas, Micheas, Nahum, Habacuc, Sophonias, Aggeus, Zacharias, and Malachias; who are for this reason called minor, because their discourses are short, whence they are also comprised in one volume. But Isaiah and Jeremiah and Ezekiel and Daniel, these four are the major ones, distinguished each by his own volume. The book of Job, some believe that Moses wrote, others one of the prophets, and not a few that Job himself wrote it. The book of psalms David published. But Esdras afterwards arranged the psalms as they now are, and added the titles. The Proverbs, moreover, and Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs Solomon composed. Daniel was the author of his own 16Dbook. The book of Esdras is headed with the title of its own author, in whose tectu the discourses of the same Esdras and of Nehemiah are alike contained. The book of Esther Esdras is believed to have written. The book of Wisdom is nowhere found among the Hebrews: whence the very title too savors rather of Greek eloquence. Certain Jews affirm this to be Philo's. The book Ecclesiasticus, most certainly, the son of Sirach, a man of Jerusalem, grandson of Jesus the great priest, of whom Zacharias makes mention, composed. This is found among the Hebrews: but it is held 17Aamong the apocryphal books. But Judith and Tobias, and the books of the Maccabees — of which, as Jerome testifies, the second book is proved to be rather Greek — by what authors they were written is by no means established.

The library of the Old Testament Esdras the scribe restored, after the law had been burned by the Chaldeans, when the Jews had entered Jerusalem, being breathed upon by the divine Spirit; and he corrected all the volumes of the law and of the prophets which had been corrupted by the gentiles; and he established the whole Old Testament in twenty-two books, that there might be as many books in the law as there were letters.

• 17B

It is established that the Scripture of the Old Testament was first published in the Hebrew tongue. Afterwards Ptolemy, who was surnamed Philadelphus and who held the kingdom of Egypt as the second after Alexander the Great, caused the library of the Old Testament to be rendered out of Hebrew into the Greek tongue by seventy translators, whom he had received from Eleazar the high priest. And, as some say, lest he might be deceived by them through a falsehood of translation, he divided them, so that each should be separate in his own cell. But they translated all things by the Holy Spirit in such a way that nothing was found in the book of one which was not likewise found in that of another. For which reason their translation is one. But Jerome says that no credence is to be given to this matter. After 17Cthe ascension of the Lord, however, while the apostles were preaching the Gospel, this same translation was found among the gentiles, and according to it the Holy Scriptures first began to be read by the Churches of Christ. But afterwards, because certain things were proved to be lacking to that same translation which the authority both of Christ himself and of the preaching apostles had declared to be contained in the Hebrew verity, others also attempted to render Holy Scripture from the Hebrew tongue into Greek speech. The second, therefore, and the third and the fourth translation were made by Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion. Of whom the first, namely Aquila, was a Jew; but Symmachus and Theodotion were Ebionite heretics. Yet custom prevailed that, after 17Dthe Seventy translators, the Churches of the Greeks should receive their copies and read them. After these there came a fifth, which is called the Common; which at a certain time was found in Jericho. But who its author was is unknown to this day. The sixth and the seventh Origen made, whose books Eusebius and Pamphilus published. In the eighth place Jerome came, rendering the speech no longer from Hebrew into Greek as the earlier ones had done, but from Hebrew into Latin. 18AAnd because his translation was proved to agree more with the Hebrew verity, therefore the Church of Christ throughout the whole Latin world appointed this one alone to be read and to be held in authority, above all the other translations which a faulty rendering — whether the first, made from Hebrew into Greek, or the second, made from Greek into Latin — had corrupted. But as depraved [primo] usage gained strength, which sometimes seeks what is customary rather than what is true, it came about that, as different men followed different translations, all things were at last so confounded that now it is scarcely known to whom anything is to be attributed.

Many wrote Gospels, but certain of them, without the Holy Spirit, attempted rather to set a narrative in order 18Bthan to weave the truth of history. Whence the holy Fathers, taught by the Holy Spirit, received into authority only four Gospels, that is, of Matthew, of Mark, of Luke, of John, after the likeness of the four rivers of paradise, and of the four bars of the ark, and of the four living creatures in Ezekiel (Ezeeh. I). First Matthew wrote his Gospel in Hebrew. Second Mark, wrote in Greek. Third Luke, among all the Evangelists the most learned in Greek speech, wrote his Gospel to Theophilus the archbishop, to whom he also wrote the Acts of the apostles. Fourth and last John wrote his Gospel. Paul wrote fourteen epistles. The canonical epistles are seven: one of James: two of Peter, three of John, one of Jude. The Apocalypse John 18Cthe apostle wrote on the island of Patmos.

These are the writers of the sacred books, who, speaking through the Holy Spirit, wrote down for our instruction the precepts of living and the rule. Besides these, other volumes are named apocryphal; and they are called apocrypha, that is, hidden and secret, because they come into doubt. For their origin is hidden, nor is it clear from what holy Fathers they were published. In these, although there is some truth, yet, on account of many false things, there is in them no canonical authority: because they are rightly not judged to belong to those to whom they are ascribed: for many things are brought forward by heretics under the names of the prophets, and more recent things under the names of the apostles; 18Dall of which, under the name of apocrypha, have been removed by examination from divine authority.

Bibliotheca took its name from the Greek, for the reason that books are stored away there. For biblion is rendered "of books," theca "a storing place." A codex is of many books, a book is of one volume; and it is called codex by a transferred usage 19Afrom the trunks of trees or of vines, as it were caudex, because it contains in itself a multitude of books as of branches. A volume is so called from rolling. Liber is the inner bark of a tree, on which the ancients, before the use of parchment, used to write; whence they called writers librarii; and from that a volume was called liber. A tractate is the manifold exposition of one subject. Holy Scripture is called a Testament, human custom giving the occasion: for in ancient times those who lacked children used to adopt sons for themselves, and when they appointed them heirs, they called witnesses and wrote out a bond; yet it was not so ratified but that it could be changed, unless the testator had died. In like manner God, having one only Son by nature, willed to adopt many by grace. And first he chose one, 19BAbraham; whom he commanded to go forth from his kindred, and to whom he promised the land of Palestine; and yet he himself is not read to have possessed anything of it. After this, when the children of Israel had been led out of Egypt, he promised them the same land of Palestine, and lest they should doubt, he made a Testament for the certainty of the promised inheritance, namely the law which was given through Moses. But because God could not die, and the testament had to be confirmed by the death of the testator, in his stead a mystical lamb was slain, with whose blood the book and all the people were sprinkled, for the confirmation of the promised inheritance. In the same way the Lord Jesus Christ, calling to the eternal inheritance not one man only but all the nations, made a testament, namely 19Cthe Gospel. For the confirmation of which that ancient lamb is not slain; but he himself (because he was man and could die) underwent death. And as God, for the giving of the Old Testament, had called witnesses, namely Aaron and Mary his sister and Ur; so Christ, who promised greater things, called more witnesses, namely the apostles and the martyrs. The first Testament is called Old, either because it was given first, or because it was instituted concerning things that grow old. The second is called New, because it speaks of things unchangeable and ever new. A prophet is so called in three ways: by office, by grace, by mission. By office, as when someone was chosen who, when war was at hand, should consult the Lord concerning doubtful matters, whether by the ephod taken up, or in any other way whatever. By grace, as he to whom the Lord by inward inspiration 19Dgave a knowledge of things which he could have neither by nature nor by training, but by grace alone, as David and Daniel and Job. By mission, as he whom the Lord sent to preach those things which he had inspired in him, as Jonas. But yet, just as in these days none are called bishops save those who have the dignity and power of the office, although some may have the merit and the virtue of this name more abundantly than those who are bishops, so neither were any called prophets save those who were prophets by office or by mission. Whence David, Job, Daniel, although they contain prophecies in their books: are nevertheless placed among the hagiographers; and on the contrary Josue, the book of Judges and the books of Samuel and of Kings, which 20Ahave woven, or seem to weave, history alone, are numbered among the Prophets.

It is asked also why only nine are called hagiographers, that is, holy writers, since this name befits all the authors of Holy Scripture? To which it must be answered that whatever has no special property by which it may be distinguished from the rest obtains the common name as though it were its own, not out of prerogative, but rather as it were out of a certain unworthiness in respect of the others; just as among the nine orders of angels the least simply obtains the common name, and to one asking who he is the answer is given: he is an angel — although the principalities and powers also are angels. A book is called apocryphal, that is, doubtful and hidden, in two ways: either because its author is uncertain, 20Bor because by the common assent of the faithful synagogue or church it has not been received and confirmed, even if nothing [pravi, ED.] be found in it. Whence the book of Job also is apocryphal, because it is of an uncertain author; yet it has been confirmed in the canon by the authority of the faithful synagogue. Likewise Ecclesiasticus, the book of the Wisdom of Solomon and the two books of the Maccabees, Tobias, Judith, and the book of Jesus son of Sirach are apocryphal; yet they are read and belong to the Old Testament, but they have not been confirmed in the canon.

Whoever shall come to divine reading, let him first recognize what its fruit is. For nothing ought to be sought without a cause; nor does that draw desire 20Cwhich promises no usefulness. The fruit of divine reading is twofold: because it either instructs the mind with knowledge, or adorns it with morals. It teaches what it delights to know, and what it is profitable to imitate. Of these the one, that is knowledge, looks rather to history and allegory; the other, that is the instruction of morals, looks rather to tropology. All divine Scripture is referred to this end. The seven liberal arts are servants to this knowledge. The trivium to the signification of words. The quadrivium looks to the signification of things. Grammar teaches how to speak correctly and to pronounce words fittingly. Dialectic avails for distinguishing the significations in them and for searching out the truth by disputation. Rhetoric regards both. Physics teaches the inner natures of things, mathematics the outward 20Dfigures and numbers.

The diligent searcher of the sacred utterance ought by no means to neglect the significations of things, because, just as through words an acquaintance with the first things is acquired, so through the signification of things the understanding of those same things which are perceived by spiritual notification, and their manifestation, is brought to completion. The philosopher in other writings knows only the signification of words; but in the sacred page the signification of things is far more excellent than that of words: because usage instituted the one, nature dictated the other. 21AThis is the voice of men, that the voice of God to men. The signification of words is from the good pleasure of men: the signification of things is natural, and comes from the operation of the Creator, who wills that certain things be signified through others. The signification of things is also far more manifold than that of words. For few words have more than two or three significations; but any thing whatever can be as manifold in the signification of other things as it has in itself properties, visible or invisible, common to other things. Now these first things, signified through words and signifying second things, are considered as distinguished by six circumstances: which are these, namely thing, person, number, place, time, deed. For in these the signification of the first things with respect to the second is considered. But by things 21Bin this place we understand such as are constituted in any matter whatever, or in the inanimate substance of things heavenly or earthly: such as stones, wood, herbs, and the rest of this kind, which are in the elements or from the elements. Now every thing which is set forth for signifying in Holy Scripture signifies either according to its outward form or according to its inward nature. But we here take "thing" broadly, as containing the aforesaid six, under which thing also is contained, that is, matter, which we set forth in the first circumstance. Every thing, therefore, signifies either according to its inward nature or according to its outward form. Under outward form are contained the shapes and colors of things; 21Cwhich we perceive by sight. To the inward nature belong the other properties of things, which we grasp by the remaining senses, as is sweetness in taste, which we perceive by tasting; fragrance in scent, which we perceive by smelling; melody in sound, which and whom we perceive by hearing; smoothness or roughness in a body, and the rest of this kind, which we perceive by touch. That first circumstance, that is thing, which in this place is taken strictly, signifies in two ways; for example. Snow by its inward nature, namely coldness, denotes the extinction of the heat of lusts; and by its outward form, namely whiteness, the cleanness of works.

A person is the individual essence of a rational substance. Persons are those who are commemorated in Holy Scripture, in whom, according to events and works and 21Din any other way whatever, the signification of mystical things is prepared. A person, therefore, signifies in the sacred utterance, as Jacob, who received the inheritance of his father, denotes Christ or the gentile people; Isaac, who blessed his son, figures God the Father. Number also signifies, as, for example; the number six, perfection. Whence blessed Augustine says: It is not because God founded all his works in six days that the number six is perfect, but rather because it is perfect, God chose that number beforehand for his working; but because number is discerned to have a manifold signification, it must be treated of somewhat more at large.

• 22A

Now they signify in these nine ways. According to the order of position. | 1 According to the quality of composition. | 2 According to the manner of extension. | 3 According to the form of arrangement. | 4 According to reckoning. | 5 According to multiplication. | 6 According to the aggregation of parts. | 7 According to multitude. | 8 According to exaggeration. | 9

Numbers, therefore, signify in nine ways in the divine utterance: according to the order of position, according to the quality of composition, according to the manner of extension, according to the form of arrangement, according to reckoning, according to multiplication, according to 22Bthe aggregation of parts, according to multitude, according to exaggeration.

According to the order of position: as unity, because it is first among numbers, signifies the beginning of all things. The number two, because it is second and is the first to withdraw from unity, signifies the sin by which there was a turning aside from the first good. Numbers signify according to the quality of composition, as the same number two, which admits of division and can be divided into two, signifies things corruptible and transitory. But the number three, because, a unit intervening in the middle, it does not admit of division so as to be divided into two equal parts, denotes things indissoluble and incorruptible.

Numbers signify according to the manner of extension, 22Cas the number seven beyond the number six signifies rest after work. The number eight beyond the number seven, eternity after mutability. The number nine before the number ten, defect within perfection. The number eleven beyond the number ten, transgression beyond measure.

According to the form of arrangement, as the number ten, which is stretched out lengthwise, signifies the rectitude of faith. The number one hundred, because it is spread out breadthwise, the amplitude of charity. The number one thousand, which is raised on high, denotes the height of hope. Rectitude toward oneself, breadth toward one's neighbor, height toward God. To the first and principal unity, therefore, out of these three members, the number ten is nearest by the order of position; the number one thousand by the form of arrangement. The one is nearer in place, the other more like in perfection.

22DAccording to the reckoning of number, as the number ten signifies perfection, because in it the extension of reckoning makes an end.

Numbers signify according to multiplication, as the number twelve is a sign of universality, because it is completed from three and four multiplied by one another; since four is the form of bodily things, three of spiritual.

Numbers signify according to the aggregation of parts, as six is the form of perfection, for this reason, that its parts — three, two, unity — gathered together fill up the whole; and they neither overflow beyond it, 23Anor fall short below it, which befits perfection, in which there ought to be neither more nor less than is right.

Numbers signify according to the multitude of parts, as two, on account of its two unities, the love of God and of neighbor. Three, on account of its three, the Trinity. Four, on account of the four seasons, temporal things, since the year and the world are divided into four parts. Five, the five senius. Seven, the present age, which rolls round in seven days.

Numbers signify according to exaggeration, when the case demands that a thing be aggravated, and that answer be made with a certain exaggeration to those things which have gone before, such as that in Leviticus: Ad Adam your chastisements sevenfold for your sins (Lev. XXVI), where nothing else is signified than the multiplicity of the punishment, expressed 23Bthrough the number seven. From few things let the wise man learn to weigh many.

These things concerning numbers we have pursued somewhat more at length, on account of their manifold signification. But now let us turn our discourse to the fourth circumstance, that is, place. Places signify, whence the Lord willed certain matters to be transacted in certain and determined places, for the sake of the signification: as, for example, the children of Israel, going down into Egypt under the compulsion of famine, were oppressed with grievous servitude; but being led out thence by the Lord, and making their journey through the desert for forty years, they came into the land of promise, which is situated between 23CBabylon and Egypt. And both nations, that is the Egyptians and the Assyrians, led them captive; but the Egyptians first: all these things are apt for signification. Egypt, which is a voluptuous land and flowing with delights, signifies the world — not this frame of it, but the pleasures of the world and secular desires. The desert signifies the religious life, through which, as though returning to our homeland, we fast from the vices and concupiscences of this age. Babylon is set toward the north, where there is perpetual cold and darkness, since that region is never touched by the sun. Through the Assyrians, therefore, that is the Babylonians, the demons are fittingly denoted, who chose for themselves a seat toward the north, as being numb with the cold of unbelief and deprived of the light of truth. First 23Dthe Egyptians oppress Israel, then the Assyrians; for the devil can do nothing in us unless we are first drawn away by our own concupiscences. Whence: Give me not over, O Lord, from my desire to the sinner, that is, to the devil (Psal. CXXXIX).

Times signify. For example, Jesus was in the porch of Solomon, and it was winter. Mention was made of winter for this reason, that through the quality of the season the quality of minds might be denoted, that is, the torpor and unbelief of the Jews.

Deed signifies, as is plain in the Gospel. Jesus came into Bethany and raised up Lazarus; then through the Mount of Olives he came into the valley of Josaphat, and sent his disciples into the city for the ass, etc. Bethany is the house of obedience. Only to the obedient 24Adoes Christ come, that he may raise up Lazarus, that is, the soul before dead in sins. Since, then, there are six circumstances which are said to signify, whichever of them signifies, either a deed signifies a deed and it is allegory; or a deed signifies a thing to be done, and it is morality. In these two we are instructed unto the knowledge of truth, that is, the integrity of faith, and unto the love of goodness, that is, unto the perfection of good works. For which two things divine Scripture must be read, namely that we may believe sincerely and work well.

The matter of divine Scripture is the incarnate Word with all its sacraments, both those preceding from the beginning of the world and those to come up to the end of the age. 24BAnd it must be known that this whole series and extension of time is to be divided into two states, the old and the new; and three times, of the natural law, and of the written law, and of grace; and six ages. The first age from Adam to Noe. The second from Noe to Abraham. The third from Abraham to David. The fourth from David to the transmigration of Babylon. The fifth from the transmigration of Babylon to the coming of Christ. Likewise the five preceding ages, that is from Adam to Christ, are divided into four successions. The first, of the patriarchs, was from Adam to Moses. The second was from Moses to David, which is that of the judges. The third, which is that of the Kings, from David to the transmigration of Babylon. The fourth from the transmigration of Babylon to Christ; and this was the succession of the priests. 24CThey are called states, because they pertain adesse of man. The state is called old, because it was in fault and punishment up to the resurrection of Christ. But it is called new on account of the renewal of human life, which was made through the grace of Christ, up to the end of the age. Likewise it is called the time of the natural law, for this reason, that man was left to his own natural sense without a common precept. It is called the time of the written law, for this reason, that then the written law gave precepts of living among the people of God. The time of grace, because Christ freely gave it to fulfill what the law had commanded. The ages are called six after the likeness of the ages of men. For the world was both an infant and a boy, etc. And it must be noted that these ages are not divided according to equal spaces of time, 24Dbut according to common renewals of things; such as were the flood, and the election of Abraham, and the institution of kings, and the transmigration into Babylon, and the coming of Christ. It is called the succession of the patriarchs, because at that time the fathers alone ruled over their own sons: which lasted up to Moses, who, first holding the principate among the people of God, was appointed judge not only over his own sons, but over the whole people of Israel, although there were already many kings among the nations. Or it is named the succession of the patriarchs for this reason, that at that time those first fathers succeeded one another in turn, from whom the human race was disseminated and families derived and countries named, as from Edom the Edomites, from Levi the Levites, from Juda the Jews

• 25A

Many things occur in Holy Scripture which, for those ignorant of the order of the events, beget difficulties of understanding. Such as this which is read in the book of Judith: that Arphaxad king of the Jews subjugated many nations to his rule, and fought against Nabuchodonosor king of the Assyrians, and by the right of the war he had won added hope and confidence to that same king of the Assyrians for subjecting all kingdoms to his dominion. Hence that Nabuchodonosor sent Holofernes, the prince of his soldiery, to subdue the nations; who, when the rest had been subdued, besieged in Bethulia the Jews who were attempting to rebel, and, from the account of Achior, prince of the children of Ammon, learned that this was that people which, lately returned from captivity, possessed those same mountain regions. If, therefore, we ask 25Bat what time these things were done, or who this Nabuchodonosor was who reigned in Nineveh — since Nabuchodonosor is reported to have reigned not in Nineveh but in Babylon, and is read to have been king not of the Assyrians but of the Chaldeans, and since it is by no means doubted that he was already dead at the return of the people from the captivity of Babylon — no small doubt arises for those who consider these matters diligently. They say, therefore, that this Nabuchodonosor is to be understood as Cambyses the son of Cyrus; who was for this reason called by the Hebrews the second Nabuchodonosor, because, as was believed, imitating the deeds of that Nabuchodonosor, he exercised great cruelty upon the children of Israel. In which case the rest might perhaps have been able to agree, save that in the book of Judith it is read that a word was made in the house of Nabuchodonosor in the twelfth year 25Cof his reign, whereas Cambyses the son of Cyrus is reported to have reigned only eight years. But in numbers we are found to have many falsehoods present in the books of the writers; yet in matters of this kind the studious reader ought not to be disturbed, because it is something to have come near to the truth, even there where it does not fall out to grasp it entirely. In the books of the Maccabees also, and in Daniel, certain things are said which you could not easily understand unless you first came to know those who succeeded to the kingdom of Syria and of Egypt after Alexander the Great: in Daniel, indeed, you hear the king of the north frequently named; where by the south nothing else than the kingdom of Egypt, and by the north nothing else than the kings of Syria, must be understood according to the letter; 25Dwhose kings are read to have had various times with one another by turns, now in peace, now in war. Which vicissitudes you will not easily discern unless their deeds be first known. Likewise, as to what we read in the book of the Maccabees — that Antiochus and Demetrius and their successors fought on opposite sides for the kingdom of Syria, and that both parties on this side and that laid claim to that kingdom as though by paternal right — you will not be able to understand for what cause this came about unless you have learned how Seleucus, son of Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, dying, left as his successor Antiochus Epiphanes his brother. When he was dead, Demetrius the son of Seleucus, going forth from the city of Rome, came into Syria, that is, into the kingdom 26Aof his father. His coming being learned of, the army which had been with Antiochus Epiphanes killed the son of that same Antiochus, that is, Antiochus Eupator. And thus Demetrius obtained the kingdom. But Alexander, the son of Antiochus Eupator, when he had grown up, gathered an army, and, Demetrius being overthrown, recovered the kingdom. Afterwards Demetrius the son of Demetrius, having put Alexander to flight, called the power back to himself. Then a certain Tryphon, of Alexander's party, killed the son whom he had received to be reared. But when he at length had been overthrown, the kingdom remained in the offspring of Seleucus. These things we have briefly set out for the clearness of the reading, so that those things which have been written may either not be read, or be understood. These times, moreover, were made notable by the Maccabees, of whom the first, Judas, kindled with zeal for the divine law, bravely drove back the assaults of the Greeks; 26Band when he was dead, Jonathas his brother succeeded. Last of all, a brother in blood and in valor, when Simon was dead, John Hyrcanus his son succeeded, and after John his son Aristobulus, and after Aristobulus Alexander his son; after whom Alexandria his wife held indeed the principate of the family, but bestowed on Hyrcanus her son the pontifical dignity. In the time of this Hyrcanus certain brigands, going out from Jerusalem, made plunder about Ascalon, where, among the other captives, a certain young man Antipater — son of a certain Herod, an Idumean by race, who in Ascalon was a priest of the temple of Apollo — was led captive to Jerusalem. This Antipater, therefore, serving some years in the house of Hyrcanus, 26Cnotable for his industry and uprightness, showed himself pleasing to that same Hyrcanus his lord, so much so that he entrusted to him his whole household. About these times it happened that Antigonus, the younger brother of Hyrcanus the high priest, driving that same Hyrcanus from the pontificate, seized the dignity of the priesthood. And when Pompey, consul of the Romans, was then leading an army through Syria, the aforesaid Antipater, sent by Hyrcanus his lord and coming to Pompey, obtained that he should go up to Jerusalem with his army, and, Antigonus being cast down, should restore the dignity of the priesthood to Hyrcanus. Pompey, therefore, Hyrcanus being restored, imposed tributes to be paid by the land, and, as he departed, set that same Antipater over the whole region. But Antipater, not unmindful of the old favor, showed himself kindly toward Hyrcanus, 26Dand exercised the office laid upon him with such moderation that he pleased both the Jews and the Romans. Now he begot a son by the name of Herod; who after his father's death, both by the merit of his own valor and also by the favor of his father's devotion, received a crown from the Romans, and was made king. This is the Herod in the thirty-first year of whose reign Christ was born. Who, since he as a foreigner had been the first to take up the kingdom of Judea, was terrified when the report about the birth of the king of the Jews was heard through the magi. And lest perchance he should lose the kingdom which he had usurped, he attempted to destroy him whom he feared as his successor. He therefore slew the innocents, so that, when all were dying, that one whom alone he pursued 27Amight not escape. This Herod also, after the other wives whom he had first married, when he had been made king took to wife a certain Marianne, granddaughter of Hyrcanus the high priest, by whom he begot two sons, Alexander and Aristobulus. But when she afterwards grew insolent both because of her beauty and because of the dignity of her family, she grievously embittered his mind against her; and to this vexation was added that she was accused of unchastity by the other concubines, so much so that she was even said to have sent a painted likeness of herself to Antony, consul of the Romans, who was then acting in the parts of the east, in order to stir up his mind to love of her. Broken by this suspicion, Herod opens the secret to his sister's husband, with whom he had been accustomed to share his counsels, and orders her to be killed. He, considering the force of his love and knowing that repentance would follow upon the commands of his fury, 27Bsecretly rebukes Marianne, and shows her what danger was hanging over her unless she should humble herself toward her husband. Fear tamed the stubborn woman; and thus, her behavior being shortly changed, she restored Herod's mind to love of her. Amid these things, when on a certain day, alone with her alone, he was jesting rather fondly and boasting of his love: "But (says she) how do you love her whom you would rather have dead than alive? For you even gave orders that I be killed." He, recognizing that he had been betrayed, rose up in fury; and because he had already before heard certain sinister words about the love between her and his sister's husband, now believing the thing he had heard to be as it were proved, he orders both to be killed. But afterwards, led by repentance, he changed fury for fury, and, crying out for Marianne at every moment, said that he could not live without her. 27CThere was added the pestilent accusation of the concubines, which testifies that the sons were being armed against their father in vengeance for her blood. He therefore, having sent letters to Rome, obtained from the senate that he might put to death parricides and plotters against his own life; and thus, after the mother the sons having been slaughtered, he himself too afterwards, wasting away with long-continued pains, ended his life by a wretched death. He left as successors his sons: Archelaus king in Judea, Herod tetrarch in Galilee, and Philip tetrarch in the region of Iturea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias in Abilina. But Archelaus, when he had reigned nine years after his father himself, being accused before the Romans by the Jews of insolence, is sent, banished from his kingdom, into exile at Lyons: where also he ended his life. 27DThe Romans, moreover, set governors over Judea to administer it. But Herod the tetrarch of Galilee took away from Philip his brother his wife, Herodias by name, daughter of Aretas king of the Arabs, and joined her to himself in marriage against custom. And when he was rebuked for this 28Acrime by John the Baptist, at the suggestion of Herodias he beheaded John himself. This is Herod the tetrarch, son of Herod the Great, who is read to have gone up to Jerusalem at the passion of the Lord, and who mocked Jesus, sent to him by Pilate the governor, having clothed him in a white garment, and sent him back to Pilate to be judged. Further, Aristobulus, son of Herod the Great and brother of this Herod, born of Marianne their mother — whom we said above was slaughtered by his father Herod and on suspicion of parricide — had a son by the name of Agrippa. Who, when he was grown, seeing himself bereaved and disinherited, having collected as much money as he could, set out for Rome; and there he was joined in familiarity to a certain Caius Caligula, grandnephew of Tiberius Caesar. Which Caius, when after the death of Tiberius he had taken up the empire, 28Bappointed that same Agrippa king in Phoenicia on account of the merit of his former devotion. But Herodias, when she had heard this, began to reproach Herod for slothfulness, namely because he, greater in riches and in powers, had not procured this dignity for himself from the Roman prince; and Herod, provoked by this reproach, taking up much money with Herodias herself, set out for Rome. And when he complained before Caius that this honor had not rather been conferred upon him, Caius, indignant, decreed that from one who sought what had not been granted even what had been granted should be taken away. And thus Herod, together with Herodias, was sent into exile to the Spains; this was the end of Herod. But Agrippa, who was surnamed Herod, is the very man who slew with the sword James the brother of John, and delivered Peter, cast into prison, to four quaternions 28Cof soldiers to be guarded. When he on a certain day had come forth to plead a cause with the Tyrians and Sidonians, and, by reason of the splendor of his gilded garments shining with the ray of the sun, was acclaimed a god and not a man, being lifted up into pride he was suddenly struck by an angel. And after some days, the sickness continuing, he ended his life. To him succeeded his son Agrippa, who in the Acts of the apostles (Act. XXV) is read to have gone down with Bernice matresua to see and to greet Festus the governor, and who is recorded to have conversed pleasantly on certain matters with Paul when he had been presented to that same governor (Act. XXVI). In his time the kingdom of the Jews was overthrown by Titus and Vespasian. The first Herod, therefore, was he under whom Christ was born, who also 28Dslaughtered the little ones. The second, his son, under whom Christ suffered, who beheaded John the Baptist. The third, Agrippa Herod, whose grandfather was the first Herod. The second, his paternal uncle, who killed James.